Common flash cards are made of nor flash transistors. The codes are either 0 or 1. Then nand flash cards came along. nand is multigated transistors, which is multi voltage storage. which can be used to do data compression. So you can not write to it directly. Nand flash cards typically has 64 mB of non volatile srams, then multi gB of nand flash transistors. Data compression has to be written in pages or blocks at once and rotated to extend mtbf(mean time between failure).

This presents a problem using the many file systems of Linux but very easy for windows FAT table ntfs. This looks easy to write to ntfs, but Linux ext2 may also work(write back i686 or no write back on i386). For all other file systems they have to be simplified before it can be used with the nand internal software operating system, data from sram compressed to nand storage.

Because of the availability of non volatile srams of 64 mB, computers can avoid ddr in its architecture, chipset can go directly to nand flash cards on USB bus.

Nand storage will not stop here. There are people working on 3d nand made by using nano wires connecting to multi nand transistors(compressed relational data base). So, future is to obsolete ddr and go straight to nand flash cards(2D or 3D).

The trend of USB 3.0 is very fast data transfer, but it uses more pins for its connector. USB 2.0 can be extented by edgeQam RF mixed signals to USBIF(IF frequency channels).

Today, cpus can have 2 mB or 10 mB of L2 cache. With USBIF or USB 2.0, a single cpu can be used to exptend the power of realtime operating system, using IP address in posix packets.

So, we will have fun redesigning computer architecture for the future.

Previously motherboards used parallel data lines, Today we only use serial data lines. But the frequency is often limited to 150 mhz due to the line length on large motherboards and large cpu and DDR sizes.

To use USB lines upto 75 ghz, we have to have repeaters on length USB lines.

<>CPU<>bios<>Nand SSD(browser OS)<>USB connectors; <> is USB lines. This is the motherboard block diagram. Once power on, the bios is shadowed in SSD temporary sram memory of 64 mB to 256 mB size, along with the browser operating system.

SSD is made of non-volatile srams for temporary memory; then stored in compressed data in nand flash at will.

Previously, we have cpu, bios, drams, then add operating system of disk data storage, window manager GUI, network DHCP, and browser for cloud computing. Today, we just need cpu, bios(without PNPos but USB drives) connected by USB lines and browser OS which can be auto-updated with newer Macromedia flash of Adobe.

All desktop tools and utilities will operate in browser windows selected in addressbar or sidebars.

Footnote:
Two inch square motherboards on USBIF have been proposed a year ago for green data center with ultra low voltage of less than 0.1 volt, on 50 ghz clock.

You may need an adaptor or USB reader that came with these cheapies. $1(buy it now) or $4(auction) plus maybe $5 for shipping?

We are, of course, looking for swap file partition(power for older computers) on USB bus for faster dram extension. Or put tiny Linux and browser on these as SSD instead of hdd? On old computers for Firefox history.

2/4 gB semiconductor MicroSD flash cards already obsoleted but still plenty on the market in distribution? 8/16 gB is more expensive still.

USB microSD memory readers and card adaptors had built in firmware which has a range like 0.5-2 gB, 1-4 gB or 4-16 gB(HC). So, you have to be sure to match the memory to reader on capacity. Or buy the memory and reader in the same deal. Unfortunately, the readers are never marked for its firmware version number or memory capacity. Sandra for windows can reader the info.

MicroSD is now closer to $2.5/gB for 16 gB memory; $2/gB for 8 gB and back to $2.5/gB down to 2 GB memory. Auction may have half that price as an occasional opportunity, if you try hard enough.

How 16 gB can help your netbook will become obvious when you start to use it for realtime packets and cache any framebuffers or accelerator channels of data. Speed of MicroSD memory is very impressive compared to hdd speed. Ebay 'buy it now' sandisk microSD 16 gB from china $20.99 free shipping(04/03/2010).

Have fun, I am sure 16 gB MicroSD is just now, the beginning of price erosion opportunity, to power your netbook or cellphone.

Footnote: Warning!
Any mismatch of firmware in the reader and microsD capacity may destroy the memory FAT when you format the microSD. Luckily, you maybe able to format and restore its usefulness by formating in appropriate digital cameras or cell phones.

For many of us who are interested to do disk cloning of operating systems without installation. Just copy from hdd to USB drives(USB microSD reader). We can download free and try EASE_US disk copy v2.3 software(dc.zip).

Its a Linux iso(31 mB zip, Winzip to magiciso burner), to boot your computer in drams(512 mb) from cdrom/dvd, then copy hdd image to USB drive. It can also copy from a smaller hdd to a new larger hdd without going thru operating system installation.

This means saving hours(at least 10) of work from upgrading operating system from scratch. All the files autoupdated can be preserved. Now, I am ready to put my WinME in 2 gB hdd into a 4 gB USB microSD card, which I bought for $10.

This will improve my virtual memory size to 2 gB from 750 mB. When my 16 gB microSD($20.99) comes, it will go thru another cloning. This is a killer app, a livecd. Some cloning software can copy dvd from hdd that makes DRM copies. Easydvdcopy and acaladvdcopy are both from cnet download.com. However, VCR will soon be obsolete except to copy DVD, its legal for your own use.

Footnote:
Disk cloning is the foundation of autoupdated versions in Microsoft dotnet strategy. Your ISP tests your copy of the operating system, when you log onto internet for last update by Microsoft, then clone the lastest Microsoft version into your data storage device.

ioDrives(indexed object memory) in 2007 compared with sata drives(90mB/s) or dram(6.4gB/s) by 600/800mB/s write and read speeds respectively. The difference is the firmware. dram version has to have memory addresses that cpu can do(indexed or in memory banks). It was $30/mB price ticket shock, but not far away from terabyte memory size we want for lifespan data storage personally. It was done in Nand flash structure.

Today we can experiment with 16 gB MicroSD flash card in USB card reader. We need the dram drivers for the cpu to access the drive as a dram replacement or supplement. This is where very old computers can add drams by USB bus.

Searching for ioDrive dram drivers may help to write a simple /dev driver to communicate with L1 and L2 cache? Windows Vista already has virtual memory as cache then it added ReadyBoost to extend the memory address of your DDR in flash cards of any kind on USB bus. so, it will not take a rocket scientist to figure out how you want to use flash cards for older or oldest computers with limited dram sockets? Vista uses My computer, removable disk drives, right click to set readyboost. which just switched 2 gB(3.43gB recommended) virtual memory from hdd to USB drive to support dram shortages or memory leaks. All other older windows platforms(95c/98/ME/XP/2003, etc.) can use eboostr v3.0.1 free download from cnet for readyboost, need USB 4 gB flash card to install.

If you then search for 'Linux readyboost' solution(swapboost), you find it in Ubuntu? Have fun learning how to search for software using keywords?

Footnote:
USB 2.0 is limited to 640mB/s each port, multi ports will speed up same as DDR drams. Multi memory banks and multiport USB flash cards will come after more markets for speed demons. USB 3.0 has more pinouts and can still use multiplexed signals(75 microsecond time delayed for A/B channel separation, or DDR multiplexer).

In many cases, embedded devices just use an 8bit cpu and flash memory to do the functions. If you then put the USB computer on your netbook, you can do special machine control with multicored 8 bit cpu cheap.

Your netbook becomes the monitor for any instruments you design with USB multicored cpu. If you want a musical keyboard, you can just use a flash card and program by memory address switching of digital frequncies for sound output without a cpu. You can have a band of autoplay pianos or a symphony orchestra, without using the netbook cpu.

This now leads to discussions of USB cpu additions to extend power or speed, using programmable arrays or asics or just plain flash cards.

First, you need to google to find a summary of USB devices. These all have cpu to drive the device. They are embedded devices with firmware and drivers. You send the data thru USB ports and these devices perform.

The first two devices available are video card and sound card.

Have fun discovering how many other USB cards are there? Now, you know why computers are just simple cpu and USB bus with 128 ports. Any memory and peripherals can be connected to your USB connector and they do not need drivers. When you hotplug or coldplug each USB devices, the USB device will connect to apps you have on top of your operating system. Many special apps of these USB devices(run 6 video monitors) have their apps put into a driver for USB 2.0.

This is why IBMPC architecture got obsoleted and Linux copied hard all the IBMPC features and drivers, which are really not needed.

USB bus is a software USB 1/2/3? Therefore, you must boot the operating system first. Then the USB driver will install each USB drive for you to work. If you coldplug, then when you boot, /dev drivers will have to install all the coldplugged USB drives for you. which USB drive gets installed first may have a conflict, unless its hardware priority is on the USB connector.

Each USB drive has a firmware in front of the memory to be able to read the FAT table and its memory size.

After I booted WinME, then I insert the USB HC reader with microSD 16 gB memory. Then I inserted the multi card reader, which takes a while for WinME to install the USB hub, then each USB flash drivers and so forth. Then I can transfer files among any of the flash cards. But with 5 USB drives, the software(allows 4) does not allow me to eject and remove any USB drives. So, I have to power off then remove all the USB drives.

In Linux, kernel 2.6.x will do hotplug. IF coldplugged, you have to use the kernel 2.4.x install script for USB drives.

But, with the high capacity(HC) microSD format and HC(marked) 4-16 gB firmware needed, you must match capacity with USB HC firmware available, otherwise operating system crashes. Operating system will crash if you coldplugged MicroSD HC firmware.

Cheap microSD HC memory on ebay is perfectly safe to buy, if you take the precaution to hotplug and wait for the operating system to install the USB HC firmware first, before you do any file transfer.

Since Micro SD was checked out by write and delete; We boot with diskcopy 2.3(a livecd). We got only partition copy because USB drive was not hotplugged. We clicked 'back', hotplugged the USB drive; and 'next' to disk clone.

The data rate was less than 4 mB per second. The cheap 16 gB memory must be class4 for 4mBps speed class.

After 13 minutes, the HDD was cloned, and we quit, to reset bios in advanced mode to boot USB-HDD first.

Then, we booted from the USB drive. Some how, we got some glitches, it seemed that the boot process is slow. But we managed to post this info using the USB drive. It may have to be powered on for a while to stabilize the semiconductor circuit. Will leave the computer on for a day to see if it improves(by burn in).

Well, that was wishful thinking. First bios recognized USB storage device of Micro SD. But can not boot the cloned operating system. The USB device interfered with the hdd because window explorer did not show the removable USB device. The cloning made the 16 gB memory only 2.38 gB(It copied FAT) same as the hdd, instead of 2.38 gB files in a 16 gB FAT. Now I have to clone the memory back into a 16 Gb memory by restoring 16 gB FAT.

So, the USB HC firmware does not work as a bootable device. It can only be used as a file storage device. WinME fdisk installs the bootable system first; then all the apps. While Diskcopy can clone, USB device HC firmware is not correctly working with WinME usb 2.0 software, unless it is just simple file transfer, after hotplugged.

Footnote:
Diskcopy cloned C:, and warned that C: has to be physically removed for cloned hdd or USB device to work. So, back to the drawing board?

Many individual testimony confirmed Diskcopy works for two hdds, one to be cloned. Diskcopy may not work for one hdd, the other USB drive, depending on your bios version and flash memory being nand(cache in front of flash, not bootable) or nor(just flash, then bootable).

Footnote 2:
Since I am cloning windows. My brother told me that the USB reader needs mbrwiz to set the partition first. Then use daemontools to put the windows image(cd/dvd) on flash memory.

Using WinME shows some bugs if you have PCI USB card. That driver may bypass motherboard USB drivers.

In USB usage, the bios can boot USB devices on the motherboard. Then the operating system will install pci to usb and usb to pci drivers. This is when you hotplug on the motherboard and USB devices are not recognized. You can only hotplug to the usb ports on the pci card.

This may confuse a number of people, but when you search for USB drivers, there are many for many USB cards.

WinXP is reputed to have solve this mystery. WinME does not, because you only use USB cards when motherboards did not have USB ports. Linux is not using USB cards.

To solve USB problems, only use USB ports on motherboards. Avoid USB cards on PCI bus at all cost.

Wireless devices can use mesh software and upto 28 people can get on one wireless data channel. If you use PCI cards you can use four mesh circuits. But USB can use 127 circuits of 28 computer capacity?

So, that is what a hotspot is all about?

For SMB office, hotspot router to cableTV modem can wireup the whole house or office building cheaply by wireless 802.11x?

Will netbooks do the job? Rumour has it that Gecko(DMP) will have a big system in Indonesia. Is it hundreds of computers or thousands, no one is talking?

Footnote:
Router power and range is about 5 watts for 5 mile range. 1 watt for 1 mile. what is 75 foot range? Very safe power rating for RF transmission in a house?

Each flash card format has its own structure or architecture. SD and SDHC or microSD flash card ofter got the wrong format program such as in PC operating system. Digital cameras also may format and lose part of the free space in the flash card.

So, this panasonic formatter(SDformatter) does overwrite erase(E: number of 512 byte sectors) and create a Fat table based on the memory available. It works well.

XP sp3 also can use administrator tools>computer management>disk management to see SDHC in USB port to do formatting to regain all the free space.

In Linux, people can use fdisk -1(/dev/sdb), to repartition the FAT table. You need to know the tracks, sectors etc. to restore the memory in your flash card. Any other partition software(gparted) may also work well.

Footnote:
Once you understand MicroSD is designed to be used like a hdd, you can handle its use accordingly. In PC, this is the same as extended memory above 1mB with its own FAT table of 64kB length(MicroSD is 32 kB length). So, flash cards are the same as DDR(dram) above 1 mB. and if you study cpu L2 cache, its now often larger than 1 mB. Once memory architecture is understood, you can design computers without DDR to cut cost and speed up computer operation. Unfortunately, MicroSD -6 is only 6mBps data transfer speed which is only USB1.1. You have to think zero wait state for any data transfer.

All electronics are now USB centric. 128 channels of data and expanding with edgeQam IF channels borrowed from radio and TV architecture. USB devices can have its own firmware and drivers built in so all you have to do is hotplug it. USB hdd everybody knows as well as USB printers. But do you know USB monitor without video card, just video and stereo data converted to USB Mpeg4/h.264 data. DVD portable player can be anyone's monitor for iPods or IPhones doing cloud computing?

This is my last post on this subject, because what else can you do with USB WiFi/n and all the USB devices we can dream up? The future is just one foot in front of the other.