Battery recharging has come a long way, but not perfected because of lack of understanding of physics and theories of battery capacity.

The most important theory is mass deficiency of electrons(made of an array of gamma ray particles) in atoms(compared to carbon or oxygen atom), which explains many nuclear engineering principles. Mass deficiency is based on the random collision of electrons due to random orbit of electrons. Then electrons lose mass, made of gamma ray particles. So, we have to inject gamma ray particle to replanish the electrons. Some isotops therefore can not exist, they degrade to the next lighter element in the periodic chart to be stable. Nuclear engineering thus promotes supercharging uranium and transmutation theory has been proven to work every time. Half life of atoms super charged can be predicted, and carbon dating is used to predict age of relics.

Since this is the basic theory in atomic physics, then battery life and subsequent recharging can be designed.

In atomic supercharging technology, we have to use high voltage(230,000 volts today, but its too high and not productive). I predict lower voltage and shorter bursts will be more efficient.

In battery recharging, we have to use 80-100% over voltage and less duration to prevent higher temperature and picking up moisture in the battery from reverse osmosis. Batteries should have hermatic seal of wax and resin(melting point design).

Turned out the charge cycle can only be a few seconds. Charging steadily for a minute will be fruitless. Charging a few seconds, the batteries of alkaline or lithium, both will have more voltage improvement. the current capacity will also be restored after a few of a few second recharging. This makes electron supercharging(transmutation) theory the major expanation of battery charging technology. Battery voltage(1.5 volts) changes when alkaline formulation transmutated(1.9 volts).

With proper charging circuit, restoration of battery capacity can be done in minutes instead of hours. I have been doing this research for about a year, looking at all the charging circuits of NiCd, NiMh, Lithium, alkaline and ZincCarbon batteries. The most important theory is supercharging of electrons to recover mass deficiency of battery media. Restored elctrons will again provide battery capacity. Restoring gamma ray particles means you can not accelerate(high voltage) the charging injection, to bounce out too many gamma ray particles, which has to be bonded(partocle attraction force) to other particles in an array in each elctron.